What did Marbury v. Madison (1803) establish?	Judicial review: the Supreme Court's authority to declare federal laws unconstitutional. Decision written by Chief Justice John Marshall.
What was the Louisiana Purchase (1803)?	Jefferson's purchase of 828,000 square miles from France for $15 million. Doubled the size of the United States and tested the limits of strict constitutional construction.
What was the Missouri Compromise (1820)?	Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, and banned slavery in the Louisiana Territory north of 36°30′. Temporarily resolved the slavery expansion question.
What was the Monroe Doctrine (1823)?	US foreign policy declaration warning European powers against further colonization or interference in the Western Hemisphere. Established America's claim to regional dominance.
What was the Indian Removal Act (1830)?	Jackson-era law authorizing the forced relocation of Native nations east of the Mississippi to Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma). Resulted in the Trail of Tears (1838).
What was the Nullification Crisis (1832-33)?	South Carolina, led by John C. Calhoun, declared federal tariffs null within the state. Jackson threatened military force; Henry Clay brokered a compromise tariff. Foreshadowed sectional conflict.
What was the Market Revolution?	Early-19th-century transformation driven by canals (Erie, 1825), railroads, the telegraph, and factory production. Shifted the economy from household production toward wage labor and national markets.
What was the Second Great Awakening?	Religious revival movement of the early 1800s emphasizing personal salvation and moral reform. Fueled antebellum reform movements including abolitionism, temperance, and women's rights.
What was the Seneca Falls Convention (1848)?	First women's rights convention in the United States, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Produced the Declaration of Sentiments calling for women's suffrage and legal equality.
What was the Compromise of 1850?	Five laws by Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas: California admitted free, popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico, Texas border settled, slave trade ended in DC, and a strengthened Fugitive Slave Act.
What did the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) do?	Repealed the Missouri Compromise by allowing popular sovereignty in territories north of 36°30′. Triggered 'Bleeding Kansas' and led to the formation of the Republican Party.
What did Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) decide?	Supreme Court ruled that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress had no power to ban slavery in the territories. Inflamed sectional tensions and pushed the country toward war.
Why was the election of 1860 significant?	Lincoln won the presidency without carrying a single southern state. South Carolina seceded within weeks, followed by six other states forming the Confederacy before Lincoln took office.
What was the significance of the Battle of Antietam (1862)?	Bloodiest single day in American history. Union strategic victory gave Lincoln the political opening to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.
What did the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) do?	Declared enslaved people in Confederate-held territory free. It did not free enslaved people in border states, but it transformed the war into a fight against slavery and discouraged European recognition of the Confederacy.
Why was the Battle of Gettysburg (1863) a turning point?	Union victory halted Lee's invasion of the North and inflicted casualties the Confederacy could not replace. Combined with Vicksburg the same week, it marked the strategic shift toward Union dominance.
What were the three Reconstruction Amendments?	13th (1865) abolished slavery; 14th (1868) granted citizenship and equal protection; 15th (1870) prohibited denying voting rights based on race.
How did Lincoln's, Andrew Johnson's, and Radical Republican Reconstruction plans differ?	Lincoln's 10 percent plan: lenient, focused on reunion. Johnson's plan: even more lenient, allowed former Confederates to return to power. Radical plan: military occupation, civil rights enforcement, disenfranchisement of ex-Confederates.
What was the Freedmen's Bureau?	Federal agency (1865-1872) that provided food, education, legal aid, and labor contract supervision for formerly enslaved people. Established schools that became foundations for HBCUs.
What were Black Codes?	Southern state laws after the Civil War restricting the rights of formerly enslaved people. Mandated labor contracts, restricted movement, and enabled forced labor through vagrancy laws.
What was sharecropping?	Post-Civil War labor system where landless farmers (often formerly enslaved) worked land in exchange for a share of the crop. Trapped many families in cyclical debt to landowners and merchants.
What ended Reconstruction?	The Compromise of 1877 resolved the disputed Hayes-Tilden election by giving Hayes the presidency in exchange for withdrawing federal troops from the South. Ended federal protection of Black political rights.
Place these in chronological order: Dred Scott decision, Compromise of 1850, Kansas-Nebraska Act, John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry.	Compromise of 1850, Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), Dred Scott (1857), John Brown's raid (1859).